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2004 Alternative Fuel & Hybrid Vehicle
Guide
Raising the hood on the leading, alternative powertrain technologies
By Ron Cogan/Green Car Journal
Motor Trend, June 2004
There's a lot to be said for the sound
and feel of a high-revving engine accompanied by a few choice power
shifts, or for that matter the visceral thrill of 10 cylinders
motivating a scorching straight-line launch. We may still experience
this decades into the future. But after more than 100 years with
internal combustion and gasoline, it's apparent that things are
changing.
Within the next decade or two, there's a good chance you'll be driving a
vehicle powered by an advanced powerplant that's far removed from the
familiar internal combustion engine now residing beneath your hood.
Government regulation, environmental pressures, and market competition
have spurred accelerated research and development into alternative fuels
and the vehicles that run on them, creating a new twist in the motor
vehicle's evolution.
Clearly, the darling of technology buffs and environmentalists has been
the electric vehicle (EV). Battery-powered cars, pickups, and
sport/utility vehicles - the majority of them used in fleet operations -
have been cruising our highways for half-a-dozen years in certain areas
of the country, mostly Southern and Northern California. This all began
with the debut of General Motors' two-seat EV1 sports car at Saturn
dealers in the fall of 1996, making GM the first major automaker since
the early 1900s to offer a car specifically built to run on electricity.
The EV1 is further distinguished as the only electric vehicle aimed at
consumers rather than fleets.
You'd think these EVs would be leading the environmental charge as
you're reading this. But that's not the case. Driving range limitations,
lengthy charging times, and especially high cost spelled the battery
EV's demise.
Now, EVs have been displaced as the hot new technology by seemingly more
advanced and functional vehicles: hybrids, which combine electric motors
with internal combustion engines. But even these advanced technology
vehicles don't have a lock on public attention, because an increasing
amount of focus is being directed toward fuel cell vehicles that run on
hydrogen and produce power without any combustion at all. Let's examine
the various alternative fuels and advanced technologies driving this
part of the automotive field to see where we are, and where we're
headed.
Hybrid Electric Vehicles
Hybrid vehicles combine an electric motor with an internal combustion or
compression ignition engine powered by gasoline or diesel fuel. The
hybrid's key distinct advantages are barely measurable emissions, an
established fuel infrastructure, and extremely high fuel economy - up to
66 highway mpg. Some hybrids drive exclusively using electric power
during slower speeds, an internal combustion engine at higher speeds,
and both powerplants under certain driving conditions. Others use an
extremely efficient internal combustion engine at all times with
electric motor boost as needed. In both configurations, an onboard
system recharges the vehicle's batteries while driving so no plug-in
charging is ever needed, eliminating a critical limitation with pure
battery electric vehicles.
Two manufacturers, Toyota and Honda, currently have significant numbers
of gasoline-electric hybrid vehicles on the road, selling at suggested
retail prices of about $20,000. Honda's Insight and Civic Hybrid models
are achieving cumulative sales of some 20,000+ units annually, about the
same as the Toyota Prius hybrid. Toyota's all-new 2004 Prius enjoyed
record advance orders of over 10,000 prior to its mid-October 2003
debut, which has prompted this automaker to update its sales target to
35,000 units per year. While there are too many variables to accurately
predict hybrid sales in the years ahead, the technology research firm
ABI expects that sales of hybrids could grow to just under the 500,000
range by 2007.
Hybrids like the Prius, Insight, and Civic use smaller-than-normal,
highly efficient three- and four-cylinder internal combustion engines,
combining with electric motors to add the levels of power required for a
satisfying driving experience. As larger V-6 and V-8 hybrids come to the
fore, we'll see an interesting deviation from this scenario as some
hybrid options will provide higher levels of performance than their
internal combustion variants.
GM is just now joining the fray with a "mild" parallel hybrid 2004
Chevrolet Silverado that's being aimed at fleets, to be followed by an
array of full hybrid models in the 2007 time frame. Mild hybrids like
the Silverado use a simpler hybrid system that achieves more modest fuel
economy gains in the 10-15% range. On the full hybrid front, both Toyota
and Ford are expected to debut 2005-model-year hybrid sport/utility
vehicles in 2004 - the Lexus RX 330 and the Ford Escape Hybrid - while
many manufacturers like DaimlerChrysler, Nissan, and others are also
working on own hybrid models for introduction in the years ahead.
Many hybrid buyers are motivated by such tangibles as fewer tailpipe
emissions and significantly higher fuel economy, the latter resulting in
decreased annual fuel costs. As an added incentive, buyers of new
gasoline-electric hybrid vehicles are also eligible for a "clean burning
fuel" federal tax deduction of $2000 if the vehicle is placed in service
before December 31, 2003. Under current law, the deduction is
incrementally reduced starting in 2004 and expires at the end of 2006.
(For details on the deduction, check with your tax advisor or review
details on the
IRS Web site.
Other financial incentives are sometimes available from air pollution
control agencies, state energy offices, and other state and local
sources. Additionally, non-financial incentives, such as the ability to
drive in carpool lanes with a single occupant, are now being considered
in several states including California and Colorado, although federal
approval of such use of high-occupancy vehicle lanes is required.
Fuel Cell Vehicles
Even as auto manufacturers develop their array of hybrid, alternative
fuel, and highly efficient gasoline vehicles, there's a growing belief
that the most viable longer-term alternative fuel for mass production
may be hydrogen, with its most logical application being the hydrogen
fuel cell.
A fuel cell is an electrochemical powerplant fueled by hydrogen that
creates electricity for driving a vehicle's electric drive motors. Its
great advantage is that it's more than twice as efficient as an internal
combustion engine in transforming energy into power and that it does
this without combustion. Its sole emissions are heat and water vapor,
with no greenhouse gases produced.
An array of fuel cell vehicles from the major automakers are now in
field trials in the U.S. and Japan. Most of this activity is centered in
Sacramento, California, through the California Fuel Cell Partnership,
although fuel cell consortia in other states, as well as in Japan, are
now promoting highway demonstrations of fuel cell vehicles, as well.
These fuel cell vehicles are largely based on existing vehicle platforms
like the Mercedes-Benz A-Class, Ford Focus, Dodge Caravan, Nissan Xterra,
Hyundai Santa Fe, Toyota Highlander, and GM's European market Opel
Zafira. Honda's FCX is based on this automaker's previous EV Plus
electric vehicle platform.
Fuel cell vehicles are clearly moving beyond the concept stage. Toyota's
FCHV is certified for commercial use by the California Air Resources
Board (CARB) and several models have now been leased to University of
California campuses. Honda's FCX, now considered a limited-production
model, is certified for highway use by both CARB and the Environmental
Protection Agency. Honda FCX models have already been leased by the
cities of Los Angeles and San Francisco for daily fleet use.
In recent years, some automakers have been examining hydrogen as a fuel
for their internal combustion engine vehicles, as well as fuel cells.
BMW, Ford, and Mazda are at the forefront of this effort with concept
and demonstration vehicles running on either gaseous or liquefied
hydrogen.
Hydrogen vehicles have quite a developmental road ahead of them, so
don't expect to see these on the highways in large numbers for some
years. Fuel cells, for instance, still face significant developmental
issues that include durability and, especially, cost. Operation in
extremely cold temperatures is also a hurdle, although Honda has
recently made breakthroughs in this area with its latest fuel cell.
Perhaps the greatest challenge for hydrogen vehicles - both fuel cell
and internal combustion - is that of infrastructure. Simply, there are
only a handful of places in the country where hydrogen vehicles can be
fueled. A hydrogen refueling station is extremely expensive at a
half-million dollars or more, making the creation of a widespread
refueling infrastructure a daunting and expensive task. Still, the
infrastructure will come, and innovations like the home hydrogen
refueling system being developed by Honda R&D and its developmental
partner Plug Power could shorten the timeline considerably if they come
to pass.
Battery-Powered Electric Vehicles
Because of the limited electric vehicle test marketing undertaken by
automakers during the latter part of the 1990s, battery electric
vehicles are on American highways today. Their advantages are numerous,
including no harmful emissions, little required maintenance, and lower
operating costs. Among these modern EVs are the Chrysler EPIC minivan,
Ford Ranger EV, GM EV1, Honda EV Plus, Nissan Altra EV, and Toyota RAV4
EV. The Memoranda of Understanding signed with the State of California
effectively required automakers to test market certain numbers of EVs in
exchange for postponing a mandate. When this agreement expired, the
costly EVs rapidly came off the market, with the RAV4 EV being the last
one to exit showrooms.
So while no major automaker is currently selling a full-feature electric
vehicle, some, most notably DaimlerChrysler, continue to market
low-speed neighborhood electric vehicles. Others appeared to make a
major commitment to this field and then pulled back. Ford, for instance,
set out to market its TH!NK City commuter car and Neighbor low-speed
electric vehicle, but pulled the plug on this effort when it determined
that consumer demand wouldn't support a business case for these
vehicles.
The reasons for this are quite simple: battery-powered electric vehicles
have well-defined drawbacks. The models that automakers test marketed
were expensive - generally priced from $20,000 to $50,000. Battery
electric vehicles also have a limited range of no more than 120 miles
before requiring a lengthy four- to eight-hour recharge, and they will
require expensive battery replacement after a number of years.
However, there are other types of AFVs to consider...
Ethanol/Methanol Vehicles
Two types of alcohol are used as alternative fuels in existing gasoline
engines, with minor modifications, ethanol and methanol. A high-octane
renewable liquid fuel, Ethanol is made from corn or other grains, or
even biomass waste. Methanol, a liquid fuel made most often from natural
gas but sometimes from coal or biomass, produces about half the
smog-forming emissions of a comparable vehicle running on gasoline. Both
of these alcohol fuels contain less energy content than gasoline, a
situation that should logically result in shorter driving range.
However, manufacturers often equip their FFVs with larger fuel tanks to
offset this.
As motor fuels, ethanol and methanol are typically mixed with 15 percent
gasoline, creating M85 and E85. The addition of this relatively small
percentage of gasoline overcomes cold-starting issues faced by alcohol
and also enhances safety, since 100 percent alcohol burns with an
invisible flame. The addition of gasoline remedies this.
Both methanol and ethanol fuels have been used in flexible-fuel cars and
light trucks (aka FFVs) equipped to run on any mixture of alcohol fuel
and gasoline in the same tank. However, while M85 FFVs were popular in
the mid-1990s and manufactured in small numbers by nearly a dozen
automakers, these have fallen by the wayside as interest in methanol
diminished. Now, a growing number of ethanol E85 FFV models are being
offered by select automakers, primarily because they gain additional
Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) credits for each of these
alternative fuel vehicles sold.
You'll find E85 vehicles offered in the most popular segments, from
pickups and SUVs to sedans and wagons. Among current E85 flexible fuel
vehicles offerings are the Chevrolet Silverado and Suburban, GMC Sierra,
Chrysler Town & Country, Dodge Stratus, Mercury Sable, Ford Explorer,
Mercedes-Benz C320 wagon, and others. It should be noted that these
models are available as FFVs with certain engines only.
Today, it's estimated that more than two million E85 FFVs are on
American roads with this number growing daily. Offsetting this positive
news is that there are fewer than 200 ethanol fueling stations in the
country, which means most of these vehicles are running on gasoline.
That could change in a big way if attention is paid to expanding the
ethanol refueling infrastructure and making best use of these
alternative fuel vehicles already on the highway.
Natural Gas Vehicles
Of all the alternative fuels used in cars and trucks, natural gas -
either compressed natural gas (CNG) or liquefied natural gas (LNG) -
offers the biggest cut in emissions compared to gasoline. Typically, CNG
is used in light- and medium-duty vehicles while LNG is available only
for commercial customers in heavy-duty vehicle applications.
Ford and GM offer a limited number of 2004 pickup and van models that
run solely on CNG, as well as bi-fuel models capable of running on
either CNG or gasoline. These include the Ford F-150 and E-Series
Van/Wagon, Chevy Silverado/GMC Sierra pickups, and Chevy Express/GMC
Savanna Vans. Ford and Honda additionally offer dedicated CNG sedans
that run exclusively on this alternative fuel - the Ford Crown Victoria
and the Honda Civic GX -- while GM weighs in with its bi-fuel Chevy
Cavalier sedan.
Most of these natural gas vehicles have historically been sold to
fleets. Honda aims to change that dynamic next year as it begins
marketing natural gas Civic GX sedans to general consumers. This change
in direction is accompanied by an optional home CNG slow-fill appliance
called "Phill," a device that will allow conveniently refueling a CNG
vehicle over a number of hours while parked at home.
The driving range of a natural gas vehicle depends on engine
displacement, vehicle mass, fuel economy, and of course driving habits.
Overall, dedicated natural gas vehicles running only on CNG offer
substantially shorter driving range than their gasoline counterparts,
typically 120 to 200 miles. Simply, it's not possible to package enough
bulky gaseous fuel cylinders onboard a vehicle to store the same amount
of energy as a conventional gasoline tank carrying this ubiquitous
liquid fuel. This storage issue finds cylinders located beneath a
vehicle and sometimes in a sedan's trunk, just behind the rear seatback,
which does sacrifice some cargo space.
Bi-fuel vehicles resolve the range issue by storing both gaseous fuel
and gasoline onboard, thus allowing a vehicle to run on either. Of
course, running on gasoline doesn't achieve the same emissions
reductions as natural gas, so the goal is to run on CNG whenever
possible and gasoline only as necessary.
While much greater energy can be stored onboard a vehicle in LNG form
and thus greater driving range provided, this liquid fuel must be
dispensed and stored at -260 degrees F, which presents safety and
handling issues that relegate it to commercial use only.
Refueling sites generally are more plentiful than with other alternative
fuels. CNG is available at nearly 200 natural gas fueling stations in
California, with more than half offering full or limited public access,
and at more than a thousand stations nationwide. They include facilities
at some gasoline service stations under contract with gas utility
companies. While this may seem a large number, it pales in comparison to
the approximately 170,000 gasoline stations that are conveniently
located across the country.
Natural-gas vehicles typically cost about $4000 to $5000 more than
gasoline-powered models. Gasoline-powered vehicles also can be
retrofitted at a cost of $2000 to $6000.
Propane Vehicles
Also known as LPG or liquefied petroleum gas, propane is the third most
prevalent transportation fuel, behind gasoline and diesel. Propane is
used in thousands of fleet vehicle operations around the world including
taxis, police cars, school buses, and trucks.
Some light-duty vehicles are designed to run exclusively on propane
while others are dual-fuel models that can operate on either propane or
gasoline. Ford is the only automaker currently offering an OEM vehicle
capable of running on propane -- the LPG bi-fuel F-150. However, an
array of aftermarket upfitters are around that will convert cars and
light trucks to run on propane at an average cost of $1500 to $3000.
Dual-fuel conversions are also possible.
As we've presented, the sorting out process for alternative fuels is
well underway. Some have already fallen by the wayside, like methanol,
as others like E85 rise in popularity. Hybrid electric vehicles promise
a continuing rise to stardom while hydrogen fuel cell vehicles will stir
the imagination. Technology, infrastructure, legislation, and consumer
demand will determine the powertrains and fuels of the future, though
leading-edge alternative vehicles are available today. |
